September 2021 Update 2

- Basic Concepts I:  Improved C++ operators, added comma and assignment operators
- Advanced Concepts: added error handling and exceptions, added undefined behavior return case
- Minor improvements for Optimization I, Basic Concepts II/III, Object Oriented Programming I
- Translation Units: reorganized and improved linkage and storage class sections

README.md

@@ -15,11 +15,11 @@
 
 * **Preparation**: What compiler should I use?, What editor/IDE compiler should I use?, How to compile?
 * **Hello World**: I/O Stream
-* **C++ Fundamental Types Overview**: Arithmetic Types, Other Arithmetic Types, Pointer Type
+* **C++ Fundamental Types Overview**: Arithmetic types, Non-standard arithmetic types, `void` type, Pointer type and `nullptr`
 * **Conversion Rules**
-* **Math Operators**
+* **C++ Operators**: Operators precedence, Prefix/Postfix increment/decrement, Assignment and comma operators, Spaceship operator `<=>` 
-* **Integral Data Types**: Fixed Width Integers, When Use Signed/Unsigned Integer?, Promotion, Truncation, Undefined Behavior
+* **Integral Data Types**: Fixed width integers, When use signed/unsigned integer? Promotion, Truncation, Undefined Behavior
-* **Floating-point Types and Arithmetic**: Normal/Denormal Values, Summary, Not a Number (`NaN`), Infinity, Properties
+* **Floating-point Types and Arithmetic**: Normal/Denormal values, Not a Number (`NaN`), Infinity, Properties
 * **Floating-point Issues**: Floating-point Comparison, Catastrophic Cancellation
 
 **[3. Basic Concepts II - Entities and Control Flow](https://github.com/federico-busato/Modern-CPP-Programming/blob/master/03.Basic_Concepts_II.pdf)**
@@ -32,66 +32,65 @@
 **[4. Basic Concepts III - Memory Management](https://github.com/federico-busato/Modern-CPP-Programming/blob/master/04.Basic_Concepts_III.pdf)**
 
 * **Heap and Stack**: Stack Memory, `new`, `delete`, Memory Leak
-* **Initialization**: Uniform Initialization
+* **Initialization**: Variable initialization, Uniform Initialization, Structure Initialization, Stack Fixed-size array initialization, Dynamic array initialization
 * **Pointers and References**: Pointer, Address-of operator `&`, Reference
 * **`const`, `constexpr`, `consteval`, `constinit`**
-* **Explicit Type Conversion**: `static_cast`, `const_cast`, `reinterpret_cast`, Type Punning
+* **Explicit Type Conversion**: `static_cast`, `const_cast`, `reinterpret_cast`, Type punning
 * `sizeof` Operator
 
 **[5. Basic Concepts IV - Functions and Preprocessing](https://github.com/federico-busato/Modern-CPP-Programming/blob/master/05.Basic_Concepts_IV.pdf)**
 
 * **Declaration and Definition**
-* **Functions**: Pass by-Value, Pass by-Pointer, Pass by-Reference, Overloading, Default Parameters, Attributes
+* **Functions**: Pass by-value, Pass by-pointer, Pass by-reference, Overloading, Default parameters, Attributes
-* **Function Objects and Lambda Expressions**: Function Pointer, Function Object (or Functor), Capture List, Other Features, Capture List and Classes
+* **Function Objects and Lambda Expressions**: Function pointer, Function object (or Functor), Capture list, Other features, Capture list and classes
-* **Preprocessing**: Preprocessors, Common Errors, Useful Macro, Stringizing Operator (`#`), `#pragma` and `#error`, Token-Pasting Operator (`##`), Variadic Macro
+* **Preprocessing**: Preprocessors, Common errors, Useful macro, Stringizing operator (`#`), `#pragma` and `#error`, Token-Pasting Operator (`##`), Variadic Macro
 
 **[6. C++ Object Oriented Programming I](https://github.com/federico-busato/Modern-CPP-Programming/blob/master/06.Object_Oriented_I.pdf)**
 
 * **C++ Classes**
-* **Class Hierarchy**:  Access specifiers, Inheritance Access Specifiers
+* **Class Hierarchy**:  Access specifiers, Inheritance access specifiers
-* **Class Constructor**: Default Constructor, Initializer List, Uniform Initialization, Delegate Constructor, `explicit` Keyword
+* **Class Constructor**: Default constructor, Initializer list, Uniform initialization, Delegate constructor, `explicit` keyword
 * **Copy Constructor**
 * **Class Destructor**
-* **Defaulted Members**: Defaulted Constructor
+* **Defaulted Members**: Defaulted constructor
 * **Class Keywords**: `this`, `static`, `const`, `mutable`, `using`, `friend`, `delete`
 
 **[7. C++ Object Oriented Programming II](https://github.com/federico-busato/Modern-CPP-Programming/blob/master/07.Object_Oriented_II.pdf)**
 
-* **Polymorphism**: `virtual` Methods, Virtual Table, `override` Keyword, `final` Keyword, Common Errors, Pure Virtual Method, Abstract Class and Interface
+* **Polymorphism**: `virtual` methods, Virtual table, `override` keyword, `final` keyword, Common errors, Pure virtual method, Abstract class and interface
 * **Inheritance Casting and Run-time Type Identification**
-* **Operator Overloading**: Overview, Subscript Operator, Comparison Operator, Function Call Operator, Conversion Operator, Increment and Decrement Operators, Assignment Operator, Stream Operator, Operator Notes
+* **Operator Overloading**: Overview, Subscript operator `[]`, Comparison operator `<`, Spaceship operator `<=>` Function call operator `()`, Conversion operator `T()`, Increment and decrement operators `++`/`--`, Assignment operator `=`, Stream operator `<<`, Operator Notes
-* **C++ Special Objects**: Aggregate, Trivial Class, Standard-Layout Class, Plain Old Data (POD), Hierarchy
+* **C++ Special Objects**: Aggregate, Trivial class, Standard-layout class, Plain old data (POD), Hierarchy
 
 **[8. C++ Templates and Meta-programming I](https://github.com/federico-busato/Modern-CPP-Programming/blob/master/08.Templates_I.pdf)**
 
-* **Function Templates**: Overview, Template Parameters, Template Parameter - Default Value, Specialization, Overloading, `auto` Deduction
+* **Function Template**: Overview, Template parameters, Template parameter - default value, Specialization, Overloading, `auto` deduction
 * **Compile-Time Utilities**: `static_assert`, `decltype` Keyword, `using` Keyword
-* **Type Traits**: Overview, Type Traits Library, Type Manipulation, Type Relation and Transformation
+* **Type Traits**: Overview, Type traits library, Type manipulation, Type relation and transformation
-* **Template Parameters**: Overview, Special Cases
+* **Template Parameters**: Overview, Special cases
 
 **[9. C++ Templates and Meta-programming II](https://github.com/federico-busato/Modern-CPP-Programming/blob/master/9.Templates_II.pdf)**
 
-* **Class Template**: Class Specialization, Class + Function - Specialization, `friend` Keyword, Dependent Names, Template Variable
+* **Class Template**: Class specialization, Class + Function - specialization, `friend` keyword, Dependent names, Template variable
 * **Template Meta-Programming**
 * **SFINAE: Substitution Failure Is Not An Error**: Function SFINAE, Class SFINAE, Class + Function SFINAE
 * **Variadic Template**: Folding Expression, Variadic Class Template
 
 **[10. Translation Units](https://github.com/federico-busato/Modern-CPP-Programming/blob/master/10.Translation_Units.pdf)**
 
-* **Basic Concepts**: Translation Unit, Local and Global Scopes
+* **Basic Concepts**: Translation unit, Local and global scope, Linkage
-* **Linkage**: `static` and `extern` Keywords, Internal/External Linkage Example, Linkage of `const` and constexpr, Linkage of `inline` Functions/Variables
+* **Storage Class and Duration**: Storage duration, Storage class, `static` and `extern` keywords, Internal/External linkage examples, Linkage of `const` and `constexpr`
-* **Variables Storage**: Storage Class, Storage Duration
+* **Dealing with Multiple Translation Units**: One Definition Rule (ODR), `inline` functions/variables, Class in multiple translation units, Global variable issues
-* **Dealing with Multiple Translation Units**: One Definition Rule (ODR), Class in Multiple Translation Units, Global Constant
 * **Function Template**
 * **Class Template**
-* **Undefined Behavior and Summary**
+* **ORD and Undefined Behavior**
-* **`#include` Issues**: Forward Declaration, Include Guard, Circular Dependencies, Common Linking Errors
+* **`#include` Issues**: Forward declaration, Include guard, Circular dependencies, Common linking errors
-* **Namespace**: Namespace Functions vs. `static` Methods, Namespace Alias, Anonymous Namespace, `inline` Namespace
+* **Namespace**: Namespace functions vs. `static` methods, Namespace alias, Anonymous namespace, `inline` namespace
-* **How to Compile**: Compile Strategies, Compile with Libraries, Build Static/Dynamic Libraries, Find Dynamic Library Dependencies, Analyze Object/Executable Symbols
+* **How to Compile**: Compile strategies, Deal with libraries, Build static/dynamic libraries, Find dynamic library dependencies, Analyze object/executable symbols
 
 **[11. Code Conventions](https://github.com/federico-busato/Modern-CPP-Programming/blob/master/11.Code_Convention.pdf)**
 
-* **C++ Project Organization**: Project Directories, Project Files, `src/include` directories
+* **C++ Project Organization**: Project directories, Project files, `src/include` directories
 * **Coding Styles and Conventions**
 * **`#include`**
 * **Macro and Preprocessing**
@@ -99,6 +98,7 @@
 * **Variables**
 * **Functions**
 * **Structs and Classes**
+* **Control Flow**
 * **Modern C++ Features**
 * **Maintainability**
 * **Naming and Formatting**
@@ -107,69 +107,71 @@
 **[12. Ecosystem](https://github.com/federico-busato/Modern-CPP-Programming/blob/master/12.Ecosystem.pdf)**
 
 * **Debugging**: Assertion, Execution Debugging (`gdb`)
-* **Memory Debugging**: `valgrind`
+* **Memory Debugging**: `valgrind`, Stack protection
-* **Sanitizers**: Address Sanitizer, Leak Sanitizer, Memory Sanitizers, Undefined Behavior Sanitizer
+* **Sanitizers**: Address sanitizer, Leak sanitizer, Memory sanitizers, Undefined behavior sanitizer
 * **Debugging Summary**
-* **Code Checking and Analysis**: Compiler Warnings, Static Analyzers
+* **Code Checking and Analysis**: Compiler warnings, Static analyzers
-* **Code Testing**: Unit Test, Code Coverage, Fuzz Testing
+* **Code Testing**: Unit test, Code coverage, Fuzz testing
 * **Code Quality**: `clang-tidy`
-* **CMake**
+* **CMake**: `cmake` and `ctest`
 * **Code Documentation**: `doxygen`
-* **Code Statistics**: Count Lines of Code, Cyclomatic Complexity Analyzer
+* **Code Statistics**: Count lines of code, Cyclomatic complexity analyzer
-* **Other Tools**: Code Formatting - `clang-format`, `Compiler Explorer`, Code Transformation - `CppInsights`, Code Autocompletion - `TabNine/Kite`, Local Code Search - `ripgrep`, Code Search Engine - `searchcode/grep.app`, Code Exploration - `SourceTrail`, Code Benchmarking - `Quick-Bench`, Font for Coding
+* **Other Tools**: Code formatting - `clang-format`, `Compiler Explorer`, Code transformation - `CppInsights`, Code autocompletion - `TabNine/Kite`, Local code search - `ripgrep`, Code search engine - `searchcode/grep.app`, Code exploration - `SourceTrail`, Code benchmarking - `Quick-Bench`, Font for Coding
 
 **[13. Utilities](https://github.com/federico-busato/Modern-CPP-Programming/blob/master/13.Utilities.pdf)**
 
 * **I/O Stream**: Manipulator, `ofstream/ifstream`
 * **Math Libraries**
-* **Strings**: `std::string`, Conversion from/to Numeric Values, `std::string view`, `std::format`
+* **Strings**: `std::string`, Conversion from/to numeric balues, `std::string view`, `std::format`
-* **Algorithm Library**
+* **Random Number**: Basic Concepts, C++ `<random>`, Seed, PRNG period and quality, Distribution, Quasi-random
-* **Random Number**: Basic Concepts, C++ `<random>`, Seed, PRNG Period and Quality, Distribution
+* **Time Measuring**: Wall-Clock time, User time, System time
-  Quasi-random
-* **Time Measuring**: Wall-Clock Time, User Time, System Time
 * **Std Template Classes**: `std::pair`, `std::tuple`, `std::variant`, `std::optional`, `std::any`
-* **Filesystem Library**: Query Methods, Modify Methods
+* **Filesystem Library**: Query methods, Modify methods
 
 **[14. Containers, Iterators, and Algorithms](https://github.com/federico-busato/Modern-CPP-Programming/blob/master/14.Iterators_Containers_Alg.pdf)**
 
 * **Containers and Iterators**
 * **Sequence Containers**: `std::array`, `std::vector`, `std::list`, `std::deque`, `std::forward_list`
-* **Associative Containers**: `std::set`, `std::map`
+* **Associative Containers**: `std::set`, `std::map`, `std::multiset`
 * **Container Adaptors**: `std::stack`, `std::queue`, `std::priority_queue`
+* **View**: `std::span`
 * **Implement a Custom Iterator**: Semantic, Implement a Simple Iterator
-* **Iterator Utility Methods**: `std::advance`, `std::next`, `std::prev`, `std::distance`, Range Access Methods, Iterator Traits
+* **Iterator Utility Methods**: `std::advance`, `std::next`, `std::prev`, `std::distance`, Range access methods, Iterator traits
 * **Algorithms Library**: `std::find_if`, `std::sort`, `std::accumulate`, `std::generate`, `std::remove_if`
 
 **[15. Advanced Topics](https://github.com/federico-busato/Modern-CPP-Programming/blob/master/15.Advanced_Topics.pdf)**
 
-* **Move Semantic**: `lvalues` and `rvalues` references, Move Semantic, Compiler Implicitly Declared, `std::move`
+* **Move Semantic**: `lvalues` and `rvalues` references, Move semantic, Compiler implicitly declared, `std::move`
-* **Universal Reference and Perfect Forwarding**: Universal Reference, Reference Collapsing Rules, Perfect Forwarding
+* **Universal Reference and Perfect Forwarding**: Universal reference, Reference collapsing rules, Perfect forwarding
 * **Value Categories**
 * **Copy Elision and RVO**
-* **Type Deduction**: Pass-by-Reference, Pass-by-Pointer, Pass-by-Value
+* **Type Deduction**: Pass by-reference, Pass by-pointer, Pass by-value
 * **`const` Correctness**
-* **C++ Idioms**: Rule of Zero/Three/Five, Singleton, PIMPL, CRTP, Template Virtual Functions
+* **Undefined Behavior**
+* **Error Handling**: C++ Exceptions, Defining custom exceptions, `noexcept` keyword, Memory allocation issues, Alternative error handling approaches
+* **C++ Idioms**: Rule of zero/three/five, Singleton, PIMPL, CRTP, Template Virtual Functions
 * **Smart pointers**: `std::unique_ptr`, `std::shared_ptr`, `std::weak_ptr`
 * **Concurrency**: Thread Methods, Mutex, Atomic, Task-based parallelism
 
 **[16. Optimization I](https://github.com/federico-busato/Modern-CPP-Programming/blob/master/16.Optimization_I.pdf)**
 
-* **General Concepts**: Asymptotic Complexity, Optimization Cycle, Ahmdal Law, Performance Bounds, Arithmetic Intensity, Instruction-Level Parallelism, Little’s Law, Time-Memory Trade-off, Roofline Model
+* **General Concepts**: Asymptotic complexity, Optimization cycle, Ahmdal Law, Throughput, Bandwidth, Latency, Performance Bounds, Arithmetic Intensity
-* **I/O Operations**: `printf`, Memory Mapped I/O, Speed Up Raw Data Loading
+* **Basic Architecture Concepts**: Instruction-level parallelism, Little’s Law, Data-level parallelism, thread-level parallelism, RISC, CISC Instruction sets
-* **Locality and Memory Access Patterns**: Memory Hierarchy, Memory Locality, Internal Structure Alignment, External Structure Alignment
+* **I/O Operations**: `printf`, Memory Mapped I/O, Speed up raw data loading
-* **Arithmetic**: Data Types, Operations, Conversion, Floating-Point, Compiler Intrinsic Functions, Value in a Range, Lookup Table
+* **Locality and Memory Access Patterns**: Memory hierarchy, Memory locality, Internal structure alignment, External structure alignment
-* **Control Flow**: Loop Hoisting, Loop Unrolling, Branch Hints, Recursion
+* **Arithmetic**: Data types, Operations, Conversion, Floating-point, Compiler intrinsic functions, Value in a Range, Lookup Table
-* **Functions**: Function Call Cost, Argument Passing, Function Optimizations, Inlining Constrains, Pointers Aliasing
+* **Control Flow**: Loop hoisting, Loop unrolling, Branch hints, Recursion
+* **Functions**: Function call cost, Argument passing, Function optimizations, Function inlining, Pointers Aliasing
 * **C++ Objects**: C++ Objects Optimizations
 
 **[17. Optimization II](https://github.com/federico-busato/Modern-CPP-Programming/blob/master/17.Optimization_II.pdf)**
 
-* **Compiler Optimizations**: About the Compiler, Architecture Flags, Optimization Flags, Help the Compiler to Produce Better Code, Profile Guided Optimization (PGO)
+* **Compiler Optimizations**: About the compiler, Architecture flags, Optimization flags, Help the Compiler to produce better code, Profile guided optimization (PGO)
 * **Compiler Transformation Techniques**
-* **Libraries and Data Structures**: External Libraries, Std Library
+* **Libraries and Data Structures**: External libraries, Std library
 * **Profiling**: `gprof`, `uftrace`, `callgrind`, `cachegrind`, `perf` Linux profiler
-* **Performance Benchmarking**: What to Test?, Workload/Dataset Quality, Cache Behavior, Stable CPU Performance, Program Memory Layout
+* **Performance Benchmarking**: What to test?, Workload/Dataset quality, Cache behavior, Stable CPU performance, Program memory layout
-* **Parallel Computing**: Concurrency vs. Parallelism, Performance Scaling, Gustafson’s Law, Parallel Programming Languages
+* **Parallel Computing**: Concurrency vs. Parallelism, Performance scaling, Gustafson’s Law, Parallel programming languages
 
 ### Essential Tool ###